Weighted Average Cost of Capital

WACC: Weighted average cost of capital =WACC= SS+B? Rs+BS+B? RB? 1-tC note: Rs , cost of equity; RB , cost of debt; tC , corporate tax rate. For cost of equity, Rs, we calculate it by using the SML, according to CAPM model. Rs=RF+ [RM-RF] As we can see in the chart behind the case, beta of Worldwide Paper Company is 1. 10; the Market risk premium (RM-RF) is 6. 0%. Because this on-site longwood woodyard project has six year life and the investment spend over two years, the total long of this program is more closer to 10-years, we choose the 10-year government bonds as risk free rate, 4. 60%.Thus, Rs=4. 60%+1. 10? 6. 0% =11. 20%. For the cost of debt, there are two kinds of debts of Worldwide Paper Company, bank loan and long-term debt. The cost of long-term debt is 5. 78% (A rating 10-years maturities corporate bonds) , and the value of long term debt is $2500M. Thus, RB=5. 78%. For the value of equity and debt, market value weights are more appropriate than book value weights, becaus e the market values of the securities are closer to the actual dollars that would be received from their sale. There are the market weights expected to prevail over the life of the firm or the project.S=500? $24. 00=$12,000M; B=$2500 RWACC=1200012000+3000? 11. 20%+300012000+3000? 5. 88%=9. 76% Payback Period: YEAR| 2007| 2008| 2009| 2010| 2011| 2012| 2013| Total CF of investment| -16| -2. 4| -0. 6| Â  | Â  | Â  | 2. 08| OCF| Â  | 2. 88| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| Cumulative CF| -16| -15. 52| -11. 62| -7. 12| -2. 62| 1. 88| 8. 46| Thus, the payback period is 4+2. 624. 5=4. 58 year. Discounted Payback Period: YEAR| 2007| 2008| 2009| 2010| 2011| 2012| 2013| Total CF of investment| -16| -2. 4| -0. 6| 0| 0| 0| 2. 08| discounted CF of investment| -16| -2. 18| -0. 0| 0| 0| 0| 1. 18| OCF| Â  | 2. 88| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| discounted OCF| Â  | 2. 62| 3. 73| 3. 39| 3. 09| 2. 81| 2. 56| sum| -16| 0. 44| 3. 23| 3. 39| 3. 09| 2. 81| 3. 74| Cumulative CF| -16| -15. 56| -12. 33| - 8. 94| -5. 85| -3. 04| 0. 70| Thus, the discounted payback period is 5+3. 044. 5=5. 81 year. Average Accounting Method: YEAR| 2007| 2008| 2009| 2010| 2011| 2012| 2013| average| net income| Â  | -0. 12| 1. 5| 1. 5| 1. 5| 1. 5| 1. 5| 1. 23| investment| 16| 15. 4| 13| 10| 7| 4| 0| 9. 34| Thus, AAR=Average net incomeAverage investment=1. 239. 34=13. 16% Weighted Average Cost of Capital WACC: Weighted average cost of capital =WACC= SS+B? Rs+BS+B? RB? 1-tC note: Rs , cost of equity; RB , cost of debt; tC , corporate tax rate. For cost of equity, Rs, we calculate it by using the SML, according to CAPM model. Rs=RF+ [RM-RF] As we can see in the chart behind the case, beta of Worldwide Paper Company is 1. 10; the Market risk premium (RM-RF) is 6. 0%. Because this on-site longwood woodyard project has six year life and the investment spend over two years, the total long of this program is more closer to 10-years, we choose the 10-year government bonds as risk free rate, 4. 60%.Thus, Rs=4. 60%+1. 10? 6. 0% =11. 20%. For the cost of debt, there are two kinds of debts of Worldwide Paper Company, bank loan and long-term debt. The cost of long-term debt is 5. 78% (A rating 10-years maturities corporate bonds) , and the value of long term debt is $2500M. Thus, RB=5. 78%. For the value of equity and debt, market value weights are more appropriate than book value weights, becaus e the market values of the securities are closer to the actual dollars that would be received from their sale. There are the market weights expected to prevail over the life of the firm or the project.S=500? $24. 00=$12,000M; B=$2500 RWACC=1200012000+3000? 11. 20%+300012000+3000? 5. 88%=9. 76% Payback Period: YEAR| 2007| 2008| 2009| 2010| 2011| 2012| 2013| Total CF of investment| -16| -2. 4| -0. 6| Â  | Â  | Â  | 2. 08| OCF| Â  | 2. 88| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| Cumulative CF| -16| -15. 52| -11. 62| -7. 12| -2. 62| 1. 88| 8. 46| Thus, the payback period is 4+2. 624. 5=4. 58 year. Discounted Payback Period: YEAR| 2007| 2008| 2009| 2010| 2011| 2012| 2013| Total CF of investment| -16| -2. 4| -0. 6| 0| 0| 0| 2. 08| discounted CF of investment| -16| -2. 18| -0. 0| 0| 0| 0| 1. 18| OCF| Â  | 2. 88| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| discounted OCF| Â  | 2. 62| 3. 73| 3. 39| 3. 09| 2. 81| 2. 56| sum| -16| 0. 44| 3. 23| 3. 39| 3. 09| 2. 81| 3. 74| Cumulative CF| -16| -15. 56| -12. 33| - 8. 94| -5. 85| -3. 04| 0. 70| Thus, the discounted payback period is 5+3. 044. 5=5. 81 year. Average Accounting Method: YEAR| 2007| 2008| 2009| 2010| 2011| 2012| 2013| average| net income| Â  | -0. 12| 1. 5| 1. 5| 1. 5| 1. 5| 1. 5| 1. 23| investment| 16| 15. 4| 13| 10| 7| 4| 0| 9. 34| Thus, AAR=Average net incomeAverage investment=1. 239. 34=13. 16%

Asses the Extent to Which a Global economy Essay

Global economy is the incorporated world financial system with unobstructed and liberated movement of commodities, services and employment across nationals. This term can not be discussed in any of the today content minus appreciating the value of the globalisation in the society (Jones, 2006, pg 95). With this, we have to start by defining globalisation so that we may have to understand what is meant by the global economy that the paper will be discussing about in the later stage of it. Thus, globalisation is the incorporation of fabrication and utilization of various goods and services that do exist between the markets worldwide. As explained earlier on that, global economy can not be separated for m globalisation, the papers thus can then come up with a hypothesis it paper has to analyse and then later on prove whether the hypothesis it true of false. Thus, the hypothesis of the paper is: â€Å"The higher the globalisation in the world the higher the global economy in the markets across the world†. With this hypothesis in place, the paper will major in seeing on the ways in which globalisation has affected the global economy and to which extent that the economy is at present. In order to achieve all these, the paper looks forward in discussing on the extent to which this particular global economy exists in the society. With this, we will discuss on the history of the global economy, and then this will be followed with a discussion on the way in which the globalization has affected the economy in the world, and then will later look on the stage at which the economy is at present as compared to the past. In order to be able to accomplish all these, the paper has come up with some of the questions that it will major on so that to facilitate its study in global economy extent. The questions include; 1. How has been the past global economy? 2. How has the globalization affected the economy over the years? 3. How does the present global economy look like? 2. 0 Literature review Global economy is the built-in world financial system with unhindered and enlightened movement of commodities, services and employment across nationals. This term can not be discussed in any of the today content minus appreciating the value of the globalisation in the society. With this, we have to start by defining globalisation so that we may have to understand what is meant by the global economy that the paper will be discussing about in the later stage of it (Jones, 2006, pg 95). Thus, globalisation is the incorporation of fabrication and utilization of various goods and services that do exist between the markets worldwide. Thus this is the basic idea of the global economy as globalisation, other than just enhancing the living style of the people across the world, it also do enhance the economy of the nations in the world and thus determining the global economy. With this idea in mind, we can then say that, global economy is featured as the worldwide financial system that possesses the integrated market for every commodity manufactured all over the world. Thus, the global economy offers the local manufacturers with an opportunity to develop and upgrade their capacity of production to the worldwide level so that they can be able to attain the world demand and be able to meet the needs of the people in the world (Dickens, 2007, pg 68). This also has given the local producers the chance to decide on the commodity that they want to deal with from the broad selection of the imported goods in the market. Other than giving the manufacturers more and better chances for their business, the global economy also have had an advantage to the local people, in tat it has enabled the stabilization of the costs of the items all around the world. This has also lead to the transfer of works or activities as well as job from the established nations which are also known as the developed countries to the developing countries as income rate are seen to be reduced in this particular situation. With this factors of the globalization, it has enabled the change of the global economy over the years and thus, the paper will look at the past, the effects of the globalization for its change to the present stage of the global economy, so as to enable it to be able to evaluate on the extent at which it has evolved to its present existence. 2. 1 History of the Global Economy According to Alam (2003), global economy came up as the result of the British economy going subversive and then it started to attain power and advancevely its raw material form the mineral resources that they had in place at that particular time. This usage of the raw material enabled the economy to grow fast to the extent that it was able to free the world economy from the slim possessions constrictions of an organic and the plant based economy of the world (Clark, 2007, pg 33). This resulted into the introduction of cheaper materials of which were able to be transported to the various nations in the world at cheaper cost regardless of the location. To do this, the world was able to experience the effect of the economy in which it facilitated their growth of the economy. This resulted to the economy to be split into three segments of which the first segment constituted the concentration of power together with use of the technology in relation to producers in little capacity (Palmer, & Colton, 1971, pg 264). At this stage , the powerful countries such as those of Us and the prance had power over the little countries such as those in Africa and Asia in that, the powerful countries were forced to open their economies in the lees fortuned countries so as to facilitate they economy in the region. This resulted in the slow movement to the second segment of the global economy in which the other countries in Africa and Asia had started gaining power and thus had some of the influence in the economy of the worked in such a way that they could offer the labour needed in some of the activities worldwide. 2. 2 Globalisation in Relation to Global Economy Globalisation over the years has been the centre of discussion whenever the issue of global economy rises up, this has been because of the reason that it is directly connected to the economy of the world as with the better relations in the world markets, it means that the business will be to the advantage and thus increasing the level of the economy globally. With the result of the introduction of the new technology in the nations as the result if the globalisation in the nations, it has enabled the countries to experiences the increase or even the reduction on their economy status in the country (Pierre, 2000, pg 133). This has been attributed by the fact that technology has been able to facilitate the speed at which the nations relate to the other and thus, do the invention of the computers, the nations have been able to relate with the other in amore faster way and thus increasing the rate at which the affect their respective economy of which usually have a fraction I the global economy as well. 2. 3 The Present Global Economy In today world, the global economy has been termed as the neo-colonialism, this is the relationship between the developing countries and the advanced countries in term of their effort to participate in stabilizing the economy of one another, it is mostly occurs in the result of their relationship in the business sectors (Vasquez, 2001). When we take an example of the United States together with that of the Japan, we finds out that their economy has been to the decrease side over the past time but still they have the hope to improve as regard to the fact that they are hoping for the stabilization of the world wide financial market and thus, with this, will enable them to at least regain their economic status and thus increasing the power of it. The same down fall in the economy have been experienced by the developing countries have been over the years, this has been to the fact that the countries have been undergoing the interference in their financial flow which could allow then to participate fully in the growth of the economy (Browning, Halcli & Webster, 2000, pg 270). This has also been to the result of the declining of the oil as well as non-energy goods costs. None the less, with the stabilisation of their currency flow, they are expected to increase in their economy status. Conclusion In the finale, we can say that the global economy has been increasing over the years and this has been to the fact that the globalisation in the nations in the world has been gaining power with time due to the increase in the technology usage in their majority of their activities in the nations. Bibliography Alam, M. S (2003). The Global Economy since 1800. Retrieved 16th December 2008 from http://www. counterpunch. org/alam07262003. html Browning, G. K. , Halcli, A. & Webster, F. (2000). Accepting Contemporary Humanity: Theories of the Present. Pp 267-280. United Kingdom: SAGE Clark, G (2007). A Departure to Alms: A Concise Economic Account of the World. Pp 133-144. United States: Princeton University Press Dickens, P. (2007). Global Shift: Relocating the Changing Shape of the World Economy, pp 65-75. New York: Guildford Press Jones, A. (2006). Dictionary of Globalisation, pp 90-105. United Kingdom: Polity Publisher Palmer, R. R. & Colton, J. G. (1971). A History of the Contemporary World, pp 264. New York: Knopf Publisher Pierre, J. (2000). Assessment Governance: Authority, Navigation & Democracy, pp 110-137. United States: Oxford University Press. Vasquez, I. (2001). Come Back of a Global Financial System. Retrieved 16th December 2008 from http://www. cato. org/research/global/vas-0011. html

An Analysis of the Dramatic Impact of the Restaurant Scene in Death of a Salesman Essay

Death of a Salesman was first performed in 1949 and was seen to be a powerful and moving piece of drama. I will now be going through the appeal and the impact of the play. First of all, the book of Death of a Salesman can be said to be a universal book, in the sense that it has broad range of themes and is a book for everybody. It has all sorts of aspects, and real life situations that one has to take in mind. Lets first look at the characters. Willy Loman is an insecure and self-deluding travelling salesman. Despite him desperately searching through his past, he is not the typical tragic hero that we have come to depict. He is rather a man who doesn’t achieve self-realization and self-knowledge. He fails to realize his personal failure, and an emotional and spiritual understanding of himself. Willy’s crucial problem is the failure to understand the anguished love that is offered to him. This is the real problem, and tragedy of the play. In the end, he is forced to making the most extreme sacrifice to allow Biff to follow the American Dream. In the end, we remember him by his quote that he made to Charley, â€Å"after all the highways, and the trains, and the appointments, and the years, you’re worth more dead than alive†. Biff Loman essentially wants to seek the truth about himself. While the father and brother alike, are in their self-delusional selves, and are unable to accept the miserable lives that they have, Biff accepts failure and confronts it. Essentially, Biff’s discovery of Willy’s affair drains him of all the faith he had in Willy. Willy sees Biff as an underachiever, and a person that could rise to the top, but Biff on the other hand sees himself trapped in his father’s unrealistic ambitions. Biff’s general identity crisis is a major aspect in the drama. In order to find it, he must expose his father’s delusions. Happy Loman is seen as Willy’s incarnation but with all his worst aspects. He is a difficult character to emphasize. He is a one-dimensional and emotionless character in the play. His empty vow at the end, which says he will â€Å"beat this racket†, is the full embodiment of the lie in which is the American Dream. He has blind ambitions, and is swallowed up by his lies that he is the assistant buyer, when in fact he is just an assistant to the assistant buyer, and is a no body. He is also depicted in this quote, â€Å" My own apartment, a car, and plenty of women, and still, goddamit, I’m lonely†. This idea represents that in fact, Happy has not got such a delightful life, as we have come to conclude, but in fact, he has an inner-emptiness. He feels as though he is a failure, and knows it, just like Willy, but never admits it. Linda Loman is one of the more reasonable characters in the play. She symbolises the need for patience and reason, as well as being the most realistic. She is practically the emotional core of the play. Well, the analysis of these characters should give an idea of what the play portrays. Here is the impact and the appeal, along with the major themes. The play is very much a mix of all sorts of different things, tragedy, social commentary and family drama. The American Dream is one of the most talked about issues in the entire play. Essentially, Willy depicts the American Dream very well. He believes wholeheartedly in what he considers its promise. He believes that a â€Å"well liked† and â€Å"personally attractive† man in business will indubitably possess all the material wealth and possessions that the world has to offer. However, his constant obsession with the vision of a superficial man with the qualities of being well liked and personally attractive is farfetched. Rather, a more understandable man would have depicted the American Dream as being identified as, hard working and positive approaching that leads to success. Eventually it is this very denial of how life works that destroys Willy. He approaches Bernard as a nerd because he studies hard and tries for success. Yet when he finds that Bernard reaches promise and success, and when he looks at his own life, he is left in a disparity, as he realises what a blind and fake kind of vision he lived for. It is actually this very idea that can be very appealing. It teaches a lesson about life, success and failure. How a man, fixed on a blind vision, realises that it is not superficial values that create a successful man, it is the desire to be the best, to want to learn, to strive for success, rather than wait for it. It is this very concept, in which we see a man crumble to a grinding halt. It is actually a truly remarkable aspect, as in it makes you think about life’s goals, and it is the educated people that prosper, not the fake. Another major issue in the play is betrayal. In the play, Willy constantly believes that Biff has betrayed him, in the sense that Biff hasn’t followed his ambitions and dreams that he had for him. Willy believes Biff has to follow his dreams and his path, and the moment Biff tries to reject this, he takes it personally, and says it’s spite. Overall, Willy fails as a salesman, to ultimately, sell the American Dream to his son. Then, Willy assumes that Biff has betrayed him because of his discovery of his affair with The Women. Whereas, Biff, who called Willy â€Å"a phoney little fake† believes Willy, with his unending ego-stroking lies, betrays him. What interests here, is the relationship between father and son. Here we have, a son dying for the truth and being realistic about what and who he is, confronting a father, surrounded by his own self-delusions about the American Dream, and to force it upon his son. This is a very interesting concept, which puts up the idea that Willy has really betrayed Biff, firstly because of his affair, which hurt Biff so much, as he loved his father and mother dearly, and also the fact that Biff is not given the chance to be realistic about himself and his family. I think it is the relations between father and son that are most interesting here. Another issue in the play, that the audience will notice, is abandonment. When Willy is a child, his father, leaving him and Ben alone, abandons him. Ben eventually leaves for Alaska, and Willy is left pondering over his warped vision of the American Dream. Thus, he tries desperately to prove it to his family, and Biff, who Willy loves dearly and has great ambitions for, drops Willy with his dreams when he finds out his betrayal to Linda. Finally, in the restaurant scene, which will be mentioned later, Willy finally believes his American Dream is coming to light, but all his illusions are shattered, and he is left babbling in the washroom. It seems that every abandonment causes great despair over Willy. It actually quite saddens the audience when they see this lonely figure of a man, living up to his fake dreams, to be shattered and let down by those dearest to him. What is interesting, is that how we come about seeing this. His abandonment by his sons can be seen to be his incapability of being realistic about life, and that is one of the main reasons why Biff is uneasy towards Willy. The fact that he is always in unrealistic dreams. So generally, it can be interpreted in different ways. One interesting point I would like to make is that Willy has this tendency to mythologize figures. In the play he has a very important quote, â€Å" And when I saw that, I realized that selling was the greatest career a man could want. Cause what could be more satisfying than to be able to go, at the age of eighty-four, into twenty or thirty different cities, and pick up the phone, and to be remembered and loved and helped by so many different people?† Willy speaks of Dave Singleman here, as a legend and the embodiment of the American Dream. Here is his mistake. His failure to understand his own life, leads to his demise. Willy fails to realise the loneliness, and hopelessness of Singleman’s job. It is that very failure to realise this, that sees both his sons abandon his fake Dream. It is also the fact that he mythologizes Biff and Happy. He is quoted as saying Biff is like Adonis and Happy like Hercules. This is because he believes Biff and Happy to be the absolute embodiment of the American Dream. He sees them as being perfect in every way required, but the reality is extremely different. Moreover, the fact that there includes many different types of symbols also makes you think. It can be said that the rubber hose is an important symbol in itself, as it constantly reminds us of Willy’s desperate attempts to commit suicide. Here, the rubber hose represents the attempts at killing himself with gas, which is, the supplier of his families basic needs. This very idea of inhaling gas is the concept that Willy thinks, is a crucial battle to afford such simple necessities. Diamonds are what I find, extremely puzzling. These diamonds represent two things to Willy. They are, the validation of ones labour, and the ability to pass actual material goods to children. They are both what Willy is craving for. On the other hand however, they are a representation of the discovery of Ben in Alaska, and Willy’s desperate failure as a Salesman. The mistake of Willy, essentially what he feels as well, is that he didn’t go with Ben to Alaska and peruse the American Dream for which he craved so much. Instead, he stayed for what the Dream promised, financial security. So, at the end Ben encourages Willy to enter the Jungle and obtain the diamond, thus, to kill himself for the insurance money to make his life meaningful in at least one sense. So, these ideas were the key concepts of the play. This is exactly what makes it a fantastically interesting and complicated piece of drama. The fact, that so many lessons are learned, so many ideas are played, so many themes and genres are come across. These are what make Death of a Salesman, a truly magnificent piece of writing. It is the fact that it takes the audience into a whole bundle of new ideas and aspects to consider that makes it remarkable. The fact also, that it is set in the 1980’s makes it even more interesting. It depicts the typical nature of the American Dream. Arthur Miller (the author) tries to get the idea across that the American Dream is nothing but an illusion; it is hard working that really matters. Maybe some time ago it was the case, but not now. This idea is clearly implied throughout the book. For example there is Biff’s struggle to get the concept of realism across to his father, there is Happy’s lies and failure, also Bernard’s excellent success, and also Charley’s success even when he was not well liked, and finally, Willy’s failure in life. It is all these ideas that make the play truly astonishing. Now, after describing the play as a whole, I will move on to the restaurant scene, one of the most important scenes in the entire play. It is the climax of the whole Drama. I will first describe the scene then explain and comment on it with quotes. It starts of with the scene in Frank’s Chop House. After Happy meets a particular girl, Miss Forsythe, Biff explains to Happy that he waited six hours to see Bill Oliver, and Oliver didn’t even remember him. He quotes after that, â€Å" I even believed myself that I’d been a salesman for him! And then he gave me one look and- I realized what a ridiculous lie my whole life has been. We’ve been talking in a dream for fifteen years, I was a shipping clerk.† Biff asks where he ever got the idea that he was a salesman for Oliver, he was only a shipping clerk. However, it was Willy’s lies and exaggerations that led him to believe he was a salesman when he actually wasn’t. Then Biff accounts how he stole Bill Oliver’s fountain pen and was disgusted with himself. Happy tells Biff to go tell Willy lies, and say he is thinking about the preposition and then Willy will eventually forget the whole matter. When Willy arrives, he reveals the shocking news, â€Å"I’m not interested in stories about the past or any crap of that kind because the woods are burning, boys, you understand? There’s a big blaze going on all around. I was fired today†. After that he states he needs some good news to go back to Linda with, because he is essentially in disparity, and his life is wrecked. Then everything goes off. Willy says to Biff that he can’t blame him because he is the one who failed math. Young Bernard appears in Willy’s flashback, telling the news to Linda, that Birnbaum flunked Biff. Biff gets completely confused at his father’s crazy statements, and tries to calm him down and explain the truth to him, but it reaches a stage where Willy refuses to listen to Biff’s story. In an absolute frenzy, Willy goes into a state of delirium and has a semi-daydream about the discovery of The Woman in the Boston hotel. Biff backs down, and then desperately starts to lie in an attempt to save his father, â€Å"Oliver talked to his partner about the Florida idea. You listening? He-he talked to his partner, and came to me†¦ I’m going to be all right, you hear? Dad, listen to me, he said it was a question of amount!† Then, when Biff can’t lie anymore, because he is afraid that Willy will get hurt, Willy is insulted by Biff, thinking it is spite and lashes out at his son, he quotes â€Å"You rotten little louse, are you spiting me?† whereas Biff would never do that, because he loves his father and only wants to help him. Then Willy goes off into the washroom and talks to himself. Biff returns to Happy in the Chop House, and accuses Happy of not caring about his father. Essentially Biff reveals the real character that Happy is. Biff tells him in a crucial quote, â€Å" I sense it, you don’t give a goddam about him.† Happy says he should go out with the ladies. Biff leaves in guilt and anguish. Happy claims to the ladies that Willy is not his father, â€Å"he’s just a guy† and then he frantically asks for the bill, Stanley doesn’t respond, so they all leave, and Willy is left babbling in the washroom alone. So, before I get on to the scene with The Woman, I want to explain this. First of all, as Willy has encountered Howard, Bernard and Charley, and has seen their success, his dreams are seriously dented. His illusions and constructed reality is falling apart. Biff wants to essentially leave behind all the lies and fake illusions and start a new beginning, one with his father relating to honesty. Willy, however, wants his sons to aid him in constructing a false truth. One that includes reliving the American Dream for him. Willy takes Biff so far, as to produce a false report of the interview with Bill Oliver and Happy is very willing to accept. When Biff starts to produce a negative report, Happy jumps in with positive remarks to keep the talk going, he quotes, â€Å"Sure pop, sure, he told him my Florida idea†. He comes up with false information about the interview, and here, it is absolutely clear that he has only his own interests in mind, however the damning evidence comes la ter. After a moment of weakness and defeat, Willy’s ultimate fear is lived in the restaurant. He is in an emotional breakdown, and needs Biff and Happy to give him confidence, as he knows he is not liked anymore, and he knows it better than anybody. Eventually we see the state of abandonment as before, when Biff and Happy reject him. Willy’s dream is coming apart, and Happy and Biff have dented it more than any other. For Biff, the experience of finding out the truth about himself and the fact that he is not a salesman for Bill Oliver, makes him even more determined to crack the lies that surround him, at any cost. Willy refuses to hear out Biff because he wants to stay in delusions. He doesn’t want the truth, because he realises how bitter it is, and he knows it. Essentially it can be said that he can’t handle the truth. On top of that Biff doesn’t want to hear Willy’s lies because he is tired of them, he doesn’t want them repeated and repeated. He wants his Dad to realise him. Biff believes, that he must conquer the heavy lies put on him, and realise the truth about his personal degradation. Both Willy and Biff know the differences between the death of a salesman in Singleman and Willy’s own pathetic vision of death. The basis here is that Biff understands that behind the American Dream lies a lonely, and terrible death, one that Singleman himself had. Happy and Linda want Willy to die as he is, in delusions and false truth, but Biff is determined to reach the real truth. Now, this is essentially what is going on in this scene. Biff tries desperately to uncover the lies about himself and Willy, but Willy won’t let him explain. It’s as almost if Willy doesn’t want to hear. Another point to add is that before Biff tries to explain things, we find out he is slightly on alcohol and nervous, and it is essentially because he wants to say he is worthless, a no body, and a bum, something that his father will not accept. Biff tries to explain but Willy won’t let him. This implies Willy is saying, I want to stay in illusions, I’m empty, I don’t want to know the truth. Biff then quotes, ‘His answer was- Dad you’re not letting me tell you what I want you to hear!’ This is very interesting, because Biff is about to tell a half lie, but that’s not what he wants to do, because he wants to get straight. He wants to come out with the truth, and he also loves his father, and doesn’t want to hurt him. With the key line of ‘he’s just a guy’ Happy shows himself as a distorted, thinner image of Willy. However, Willy has a good side to him, his love for his family, and his sense of humour are his good sides. Overall, this scene where we see Biff and Happy, can be said to be the emotional climax of the whole play, as many different ideas and concepts are revealed. Now, I will be describing the scene where Willy is left alone in the rest room, and is in a flashback. When his sons have departed from the Chop House, Willy is left alone in his daydreams and flashbacks about Biff’s visit to Boston. In his daydream he is in a hotel room in Boston with his mistress. After telephoning repeatedly, Biff is knocking on the door. The Woman pesters Willy to go answer. We learn something new about her, as she quotes, â€Å" You know you ruined me, Willy? From now on, whenever you come to the office, I’ll see that you go right through to the buyers. No waiting at my desk any more, Willy. You ruined me.† She doesn’t ‘t actually mean Willy ruined her, but it is just a sort of joke. However, this means, that Willy met her in a buyer’s office and she was presumably, the secretary. Willy is clearly nervous about the surprise visitor, and he orders her to stay in the washroom because it might be a clerk investigating their affair. Willy answers the door and Biff is there. He tells Willy he flunked maths and asks Willy to persuade the teacher, Mr. Birnbaum, to pass him. Then Willy quotes, â€Å"Come on, let’s go downstairs and get you a malted.† Willy is clearly trying to get Biff out of the room quickly. When Biff imitates the maths teacher, The Woman laughs in the bathroom. Willy insists that it is nothing. The Woman suddenly enters the room. Willy quickly pushes her out into the hall way and says that she is a buyer staying in a room next door who needed to shower in Willy’s room, because her room was being painted. Biff then, astonished, sits on his suitcase, crying silently, and not buying his father’s lies at all. Willy says he will go talk to the math teacher, but in tears, Biff says he should forget it. The most harmful blow was when he quoted, â€Å" You-you gave her Mamas stockings!† Then he quotes, â€Å" You fake! You phoney little fake! You fake!† Biff leaves in tears, and Willy is left on the floor quoting, â€Å" I gave you an order! Biff, come back here or I’ll beat you! Come back here! I’ll whip you!† Stanley pulls Willy out of his daydream. Willy is still on his knees yelling and ordering Biff. Stanley pulls him back up, and Willy attempts to tip him, but Stanley sneakily puts it back into Willy’s pocket. Willy asks him frantically where a seed store is, he must plant something, he quotes, and â€Å"Nothing’s planted I don’t have a thing in the ground† So, what did this all mean? Well, Biff discovers the affair of Willy and calls him â€Å"phoney little fake†, so, this means that he suddenly, at that moment, realises what’s beneath Willy’s facade and despises the man behind it. This is what saddens Willy the most, to be exposed in that way. From then on, Willy decides that the reason for Biff rejecting his illusions and the reason for his failure in life is because of what he found out. Of course, in logic, Biff hated Willy for his affair, and therefore hated his ambitions and dreams as well. In this way, Willy mixes up professional with personal. Willy, in his understanding of the American Dream, believes that it has no need for professional success; rather, he thinks that one can derive happiness without these things. Essentially, he thinks success derives from immaterial and ephemeral concepts, of being â€Å"well liked† and having â€Å"personal attractiveness†. Willy believes, that because Biff doesn’t respect him anymore, as a father or person, he automatically rejects the American Dream. However, Willy is correct. This knowledge of the crime that Willy has committed tarnishes any emotional aspects, so therefore Biff rejects the whole idea of the fake American Dream, that Willy is so desperate to sell. Another aspect is the symbol of Linda’s stockings. Earlier in the play, Willy was preoccupied with the state of Linda’s stockings and her mending them. Until the restaurant scene, which is the most climatic scene where Biff tries to uncover all the lies surrounding the Loman household, the only subconscious trace of Willy’s adultery is the complete and utter persistence to throw away Linda’s stockings. These stockings are the ultimate symbol of betrayal and guilt, which overpowers Willy. When Biff then rejects his ambitions for him and the American Dream, his Dream also starts to crack. Willy’s delirious interest in the seed shop and the end reveals a lot about him. At that moment Willy is a failure. He is poor, unemployed and has nothing to give to his sons. He tries to give Stanley a dollar to portray to him at least that he does own something. However, it was a pretty pathetic and feeble attempt. Stanley though doesn’t accept it, because at that time he feels dear to Willy since both sons have left him. In addition, the failure to raise Biff the way he wanted means he has to plant some vegetables at least, to prove his labour and to raise something successfully. The quote at the end, â€Å"Nothing’s planted. I don’t have a thing in the ground†, is implying how Biff was able to break free of his American Dream, and the traditions of his family. Finally, the metaphor represents Willy’s natural preferences to do manual labour, and that being a salesman, was definitely the wrong choice to go with. So, I have come to an end and the only conclusion that I can make of the play, is that it is a fantastically good idea. The themes have an extraordinary range. These include betrayal, the American Dream, material success, commerce, truth vs. lies/fantasy, family, instinct, work, death and ‘dying well’. I’ll end with a quote made by Biff, which summed up Willy very well, â€Å"He had the wrong dreams. All, all wrong.† Background Information: The whole play addresses many painful conflicts regarding the American national values. It offers a post war personal tragedy reading. I think mostly; Miller is concerned with America revolving around the false myth that is based on capitalism and materialism constructed by the post war economy. A type of view, which was held highly by the founders of America. The challenge of the American Dream was very radical at the time of World War II. Radical as it was, many of the artists and philosophers took up the idea of realistic views and personal meaning. At that time this was unusual, and the government didn’t like the idea, they had confusion already in the country. However, many people, even then, had so many conflicts, which included racial and economical, that they couldn’t take up the idea of a social reformation. Many people still kept their ideological interests in hand. However in this day and age, it is obvious that the ideas of people like Arthur Miller have been put into practise, and now, the emphasis is of the American Dream is that it only works if you want to succeed and get to the top by working hard and being positive that you will do well. So, as a final comment, I think that Arthur Miller’s ideas and concepts managed to change the way people think about how society and families work, and what are the values to keep in mind.

Budgetary control" URGENT MUST SEE A REAL TOPIC IN DETAILS Thesis

Budgetary control" URGENT MUST SEE A REAL TOPIC IN DETAILS SECTION - Thesis Example Budgetary control is part of overall organisation control and is concerned primarily with the control of performance (Abdel, 2011). The use of budgetary control in performance management has of late earned greater importance especially as an integrative control mechanism for the organisation. The purpose of this thesis is to analyze the role of budgetary control in performance management, organisational control and as an integrative control mechanism within an organization. According to Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (CIMA), London, budgetary control refers to establishment of budgets for the continuous comparison of actual with the budgeted information for achieving the goals and recording the deviation and conducting a revision of budgets under the fresh circumstances (Ray, 2009). Planning, Coordination, Communication and Control are the primary objectives of budgetary control. Planning involves preparing a table of action for a business over a specified period of time. Coordination refers to synchronization or bringing together of different activities of a company or an organization to ensure cooperation of all the concerned towards the common goal. Communication as an objective of budgetary control refers to informing the budget to the concerned about what is expected of them to accomplish (Abdel, 2011). The budget which is approved contains all the plans of the management regarding the future course of action which are communicated to the concerned departments. The departments follow the approved budget and are expected to adhere to it for the specified period. Control refers to process, necessary to bring the performance according to the original plan. Control is possible with pre-determined standards laid down in the budget. To enable budgetary control a continuous comparison of real performance with that of budget is maintained to find out the

Ethics in Corporate America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Ethics in Corporate America - Essay Example Moreover, the Ethics Resource Center (ERC) has detected that workforce in corporate America working in an ethical situation are keen to go beyond the limits to serve their bosses (Ethics Resource Center, 2012). Scandals within few of US’s largest corporations have produced some farsighted-overdue self-analysis among individuals in government and business. Congressional bills and Presidential speeches set forth helpful policies and ideas considering heavier sanctions for fraud and more clear-cut accounting standards for practitioners. However, it would be a misunderstanding to believe that some novel ordinances from Washington will build everything correct with the corporate world. The response to corporate trickery is not stronger or more regulation. Over 2,000 years of legislation and criminal offense have established that laws are crucial, but are not able to do the work by themselves. As the aftermath of well-publicized, recent, ethical failures, leaders concerns and public attention in government and business have centered on the ethical atmosphere of corporate America. This concern and awareness is eliciting anticipations for ethical conduct, admitting those statute into law (for instance, Sarbanes Oxley legislation), and producing social pressures for regenerate. Business leaders must realize the scope and nature of the issue. The focus of media on corporate ethics has connected chiefly to publicly-traded large corporations. Nevertheless, the matter of ethical indiscretion and behavior is a worry for all organizations, irrespective of size. Indeed, the developing significance of enterprising firms to economic process and development all over the world has motivated some to condemn the restrained notice small business experiences in the ethics related literature. Research Objectives The mention of â€Å"Enron†,â€Å"WorldCom†and â€Å"Arthur Andersen†, titles that at one time directed to conversations about global business under standing and success, now brings up images of unethical behavior and greed. The humiliations surrounding these companies, accompanied with an interpenetrating perception of a deficiency of ethics demonstrated by the acts of business leaders, have caused a direct impression on businesses’ ability to contend, create jobs, and assist in pulling the American economy out of its economical down turn. In spite of the current attention channelized toward the unethical behavior of the leadership of these companies, the matter of business ethics violation, a phrase referred usually as an oxymoron by a few, is not novel. The basic consideration of this research is to draw the sources of rising ethical concerns in the Corporate America and their aftermath. Business Ethics and the Corporate America The terminology of ‘business ethics’, as employed in and mentioned to, in the place of work, was for the first time coined approximately in the 1970s. Its beginning was first emplo yed in academician writings, education, and then in society conferences and meetings originated to tap the field as a novel wave of education took hold. As the terminology inserted in the workplace during the period of late 1980s and early 1990s, there was an effort to construct ethics into the groundwork of organizations in the form of ethics officers, ethics codes, ethics training and ethics committee. This ethics acceptance evidently collapsed in the early twenty first century. Corporate executives were evaluated on either meeting or outperforming their goals, and were provided handsome rewards with huge remunerations, immense stock

Marketing Plan Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words - 1

Marketing Plan - Research Paper Example new look of the MS Office programs such as Word, Excel and PowerPoint provided with efficient features making the working process more comfortable, easy and safe; as well as enhancing already existing means of communication and information exchange. Microsoft Corporation main mission is based on idea of sustaining its position as World’s number one technology company which is engaged into creation, development, licensing and manufacturing software products and operating systems, search engines as well as conquering video game industry (Microsoft, 2015). Microsoft audience is as diversified as the product portfolio and it involved young adults of 16-30 years as targeted users Xbox consoles and operating systems for everyday and educational purposes as well as business segment using software in professional sphere where collecting, storing and presentation of information are essential processes and can be seen on firms and corporations different in size. Nowadays the competition within industry is severe as the company is diversified and it meets rough competition in several key areas such as search engine and smart phones from giants such as Google, Apple and Oracle. Microsoft market consists of products, consumers and business users. The main feature of this very aspect is implied in diversification of product portfolio which is aimed at reaching the audience through erasing the boundaries of age, profession, social status (Microsoft, 2015). Operation systems are designed to be applied on computers and other devices as means of data storing or day-to-day operations including education, entertainment, health care, programs such as Skype can be used by professionals and consumers. Corporate (business market) – people engaged in large businesses, firms and corporation feel the need in sufficient software in order to work with information on different levels, bringing convenience into the process of collecting, storing and presentation of information as well

IPv6 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

IPv6 - Essay Example The 32-bit addressing system employs packet switching to facilitate communication. IPv4 can thus be treated as an upgrade of IPV4, to improve the IP protocol system. There are a number of significant dereferences between the two protocols that will be essential in determining one’s choice for usage. Discussed below are the major differences: Address length- IPv4 is a 32 bit address while IPv6 is a 128 bit. This is the basic difference observable at a glance. These DNS names differ by a wide margin if compared by the number of addresses each can yield. In fact, to completely cover the IPv6 address, it is written in hexadecimal numbers as compared to IPv4 written in dotted decimal numbers. This forms of representation are all interpreted in form of binary numbers by the computers (Huitema, 1996). Packet header-generally, packet headers are always affixed at the start of Internet protocol addresses. It normally contains the address of the destination of a given packet. IPv4 has got packet headers only. This differs from IPv6 that has the header, although with more advanced functionalities. The header of IPv4 is 20 bits as compared to the 40 bits of IPv6. The advancement in the header allows addition of extension headers, a functionality not provided for by IPv4 computers (Huitema, 1996). Address resolution- the process of address resolution involves mapping of various IP addresses to the MAC address or rather, a link address. IPv4 employs the RFC 826. This is an Ethernet address resolution protocol. This resolution protocol has over the years exposed users to cyber threats because the protocol is within the link layer. IPv6 on the other hand makes use of Neighbor discovery Address resolution. Its protection is secured because the IPSec is employed to secure the connection in tunnel or transport mode (Amoss, & Minoli, 2008). Configuration- users of IPv4 have to ensure all configurations are done prior to internet usage. The IP address and routes

Taj Mahal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Taj Mahal - Essay Example Taj Mahal is one of the most visited places of interests in India by all tourists, especially foreigners for whom it is on top of their priority list. When you enter to see its front view - it is so ravishing that you are mesmerized. It seems as if a palace in brilliant architecture made in white marble is standing high in the sky before you. There is a story of true love behind the building of this monument. The fifth Mughal king Shah Jehan made this monument out of love for his beloved second wife, Mumtaz Mahal, to fulfil her wish on deathbed. She wanted the King to build a monument of their love to show it to the whole world. King Shah Jehan fulfiled her wish by building a miracle of white marble in the loving memory of his beloved wife. History says that the monument took 22 years to complete in 1653. That time, it cost 32 Million Rupees. The guide informs that it took twenty thousand workmen and expert craftsmen from countries like Persia, France, Iran, Italy and Turkey to build the Taj Mahal under the supervision of a Persian architect, Ustad Isa. As we are entering the main gateway, the guide informs that the length and width of the Taj Mahal complex measures 590x300m, including the main gateway called Darwaza, the equally proportioned garden measuring 300x300m, the Masjid or mosque, the Naqqar Khanna means rest house and the Rauza or the Taj Mahal mausoleum.

Prevalence of CKD among the Aboriginal and the Risk Factors Essay

Prevalence of CKD among the Aboriginal and the Risk Factors - Essay Example It is evidently clear from the discussion that kidney damage shown by the passing of protein in the urine, is widespread among the Aboriginal, and proportions of treated chronic kidney disease among the Aboriginal have at times been reported to be more than 30 times the levels of other Australians. Though data on the occurrences and prevalence of CKD among the Aboriginal is not present at the national level, the big burden resulting from CKD within this population is shown by the high rate of prevalence of CKD, the high cases and prevalence of ESKD, the high hospitalization cases and mortality rates related with CKD among the Aboriginal. The biggest challenge facing the Aboriginal is accessibility to healthcare. Risk factors for chronic kidney disease are greatly prevalent among the Aboriginal communities. Poor nutrition, alcohol abuse, tobacco smoking, obesity, high blood pressure, diabetes and other preventable diseases are widespread among many Aboriginal and have been related to kidney problems within this community. Data from the National Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organization indicated higher levels of diabetes, obesity, smoking, and high blood pressure among the Aboriginal in comparison with other Australians. Add this to the poor social-economic conditions and usual remote regions resulting in poor accessibility of health services and you get increased cases of CKD as well as other chronic illnesses among the Aboriginal. There is also higher cases of low birth weights among the Aboriginal and this according to McDonald contributes to increased risk for kidney disease, outside other risk factors.

Poison Politics Do Negative Campaign Ads Have an Affect on Voters Research Paper

Poison Politics Do Negative Campaign Ads Have an Affect on Voters - Research Paper Example It cast an influence on the voters which was sufficient to bring the intended result. Key words: Negative ad campaigns, Politics, election, affect on voters, beneficial, harmful. Introduction The minds always active in the towers of politics have gained the knowledge of the powers of the media and its overwhelming effects over the minds of the populace. They have realized that media can be utilized as the biggest medium of propagation. The exploitation of media in one’s purpose has become a norm of today’s political sociality. The rule is practiced in the political campaigns of the entire world but in the United States of America, the ratio is relatively the bigger. In fact media is one of the only tools the candidates for presidency in the United States of America use to attract the masses towards their will. In the course, no hesitation is felt to highlight the negative aspects of the opponent’s life. Such ads in which the opponent’s image is presented a s unfavorable are called negative ads and hence the negative ad campaigns (Kamber, 1997). Negative ads work to exploit the sentiments and emotions of the society. Negative ads work because humans are emotional and psychologically they are impressed by appeals. Though the overall turnout is not necessarily affected by the negative ad campaigns, it however helps in turning one’s already developed point of view. â€Å"Advertising matters at the margins. ... One unconsciously processes the ads though he claims to have his mind not affected by the ads. About the undecided voters, â€Å"Drew Western† found them completely overwhelmed by the negative political ads. The reason behind is just simple: humans are curious for harms. We always stop to the wreck of a car but never to the flowers all around the roads (Sohn, 2012). Statement of Problem 47% Video is an ad in which Romney spoke at a fundraiser in the words: â€Å"there are 47% who are with Obama, who are dependent on government, who believe they are victims, and who believe the government has a responsibility to care for them† (Newport, 2012). The video entangled Mitt Romney as he had talked abusingly of the American people. Obama and company exploited the video against Romney. They told the people that Romney did not deserve to be their President as he had talked about them scornfully. The ad affected the overall political scenario of the United States of America. The s trength of negativity lies in its pulling of the people to search for more information about the candidates. For instance, the 47% video of Romney leaked in the recent elections. He was talking to some confidante in a closed room and at a suitable time, the conversation recorded was made open to the whole nation. The video compelled a large number of people to rethink of their favor for Romney. Many were heard to say that after watching the said advertisement, they were of the view that Romney was narrow-minded and such a person could not lead the nation among huge crisis. This is now to evaluate the statement that negative ads definitely work. The results of the 2012 Presidential Elections reveal that both the candidates fought with each

Race and the Mass Media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Race and the Mass Media - Essay Example In this paper, we will discuss the impact of mass media on improving or weakening the relationships between the people belonging to different races. It is not difficult to identify how mass media can weaken and marginalize a particular ethnic group which is outlined in the article titled ‘Revealed: How UK media fuelled race prejudice’. Rather it is more of a challenge to understand the concepts of race, marginalization, racial prejudice, and institutional racism. These concepts along with the Antonio Gramsci's concept of hegemony and Stuart Hall literature provide us with an in-depth understanding of why racial discrimination is happening in the United Kingdom and in all western countries including Australia. Once we understand the concepts of race and hegemony, we will become able to truly identify what responsibilities media holds in improving race relations. In this paper, we will discuss the impact of mass media on improving or weakening the relationships between the people belonging to different races.... Another critical issue which is affecting the rights of minorities living in any specific part of world is racial prejudice. Racial prejudice occurs when one specific race is given more powers and attention as compared to other races or ethnics minorities. The concept of racial prejudice stems from the issue of unequal distribution of powers among the people living in a country. Power is one of such elements of a society which give rise to severe problems for the society if handled improperly. When one race is given all powers, racial prejudice occurs which takes away the peace of the society along with the rights of minorities. Institutional racism is another concept related to the overall concept of race. Institutional racism occurs when institutional powers are given to the people belonging to one specific race. Social caste system based on the differences between people leads to institutional racism. â€Å"Institutional racism results from the social caste system that sustained, and was sustained by, slavery and racial segregation† (Head n.d.). 3. Concept of Hegemony The basic concept of hegemony is that it is not just the force or power which drives a man rather ideas also play a considerable role in this regard. Trubshaw (2004) states, â€Å"Hegemony can be established either by coercion or more subtly by what are usually termed 'consensual' processes† Antonio Gramsci's concept of hegemony was that one social class dominates other classes. He believed that the dominant class not only controls the society politically and economically but also makes other classes perceive the world as the dominant class perceives it.

Once Upon A Family Essay Example for Free

Once Upon A Family Essay In the book (Daley, 2007) â€Å"Once Upon A Family† by author Margaret Daley, we read about a character by the name of Sean Williams who is helped by his principal at Cimarron High, where he attends school, by the name of Peter Stone. Laura Williams was extremely nervous as she stands before the high school principal, who is tall, dark and handsome, as she worries so much for her oldest child who had always been a good student. Peter Stone explains that Sean wasn’t willing to talk very much about the fight that he took part in and wonders if the new move had anything to do with this sudden change in Sean’s behavior. Peter takes a special interest in Sean’s mother and realizes that he can help her, her family and himself in finding completeness in their lives. Peter Stone lives on a beautiful ranch and is a religious man who learns not only to care for Sean, but also for his mother; Laura and Sean’s siblings. The Williams family attend Peter’s church many times and learn that God has special intentions for their lives and also that all problems can be solved through prayer. Laura Williams is a good hearted, self-sacrificing widow, while Peter Stone worked at his job at the high school where he could make a difference in the lives of the young and attended church, faithfully to fulfill his religious needs, but he still needed the Williams family in his life to fill an empty void and just as desperately as they needed him. We learn from this book that God has a special way of bringing people together and he always knows exactly what we need.

Technology Developments for Villages in Developing Countries

Technology Developments for Villages in Developing Countries There is an urgent need to examine the catalytic and enabling role to be played by the government in ensuring that IT provides new opportunities for the 40 per cent of the people who are living below the poverty line, so that they may move above it. Government of India Working Group on Information Technology for Masses Write an essay, that highlights examples that support the second opinion i) Describe 6 different case studies that show how the technology is being used in villages in developing countries (South-East Asia, Africa, Latin America) ii) Assess each case, commenting whether you believe it is beneficial to the community or not and whether those same case studies can be used by supporters of the first opinion above. Case Studies: Balaghat, India As described by Sumeet Chatterjee (2001) the IT initiatives in this village constitute a great example of the wide variety of applications for IT in developing countries. The district is rural and the core industries are farming and mineral extraction with the majority of the people being poor. A major problem in the area is corruption of government officials. People need papers to prove land ownership and other official documents and prior to the IT project’s arrival it typically took weeks to obtain and required expensive payments to officials. Now a villager can go to the local â€Å"Soochnalaya† (information centre) and have the information in minutes and for a fraction of the cost. Other information of interest to the villagers such as crop data, rainfall patterns and other documentation are available. The centralized internet point is a key aspect in bringing IT to the masses. Without government funding to buy a computer and set up the infrastructure there would be no Soochnalayas. IT in this case is a major benefit to the people of the region as it brings information at a low cost which is exactly what these people need to help them in the struggle to develop. Padinettankudi, India In an online article about this rural village in India Mukti Jain Campion (2002) relates an anecdote about how IT is being used to treat health problems in areas without access to medical technology. In this town an entrepreneur-run public internet center was set up with the help of a large Indian IT government and private venture with the aim of bringing IT to the masses. For few rupees email, information and government forms to the rural poor. In the case described the internet also serves an important medical service to the people of the area. Only 40km away lies the Aravind Eye Hospital, a hospital dedicated to treating eye problems and where money is not an issue. The problem is having access to patients as majority of people are unable to get to the hospital without considerable difficulty. So at the internet centre a webcam is used to take photos of the symptoms and online chat can be used to talk with the patient. Sound medical advice can then be given for the cost of a few rupees. This is a fantastic application of IT in development and the available benefits are enormous. Capetown, South Africa When describing IT initiatives often only computers and internet access are mentioned but IT involves so much more. In South Africa HIV is a major issue with over15% of the population being infected by this terminal disease (Nick Miles. 2005). The SA government has begun to allot drugs to the people who need them but keeping track of the patients and having doctors to check on them all is expensive in terms of both time and money. This is where IT enters the scene. Using mobile phones a non-medical aid worker can interview dozens of people and record the information in the phone. The survey results are then sent by text message to a center where the data is entered into computer software. The software can identify people who need attention and a doctor can pull up the record of any patient and see up to date information. The benefits are obvious. Cuba, Brazil and Open-Source The cost of software is often a major percentage of the price of a computer. A copy of Windows XP costs significantly more than the average person in the developing world makes in a day. Despite Microsoft’s initiative to sell Windows at reduced costs to developing nations, free is preferred to paying a fee and nations like Cuba and Brazil are exploring free OS choices. In a 2004 article Mark Ashurst describes how Brazil is attempting to move from Windows to open-source Linux. There is political resentment against Microsoft but there is also the attraction of free software and no licensing fees that attract people form Windows to Linux. Also susceptibility to viruses and the cost of a network going down also drive people to Linux. Ashurst describes the state of the switch to â€Å"Linux in terms that almost 1/3 of computers will soon have Linux installed†. Cuba is following suit and recently announced a government initiative to switch all computers to Linux (Computer Business Review, 2005). Whether this IT initiative with greatly benefit the people of these countries remains to be seen. Linux may be cheaper but it requires more training and long term benefits are hard to predict though with reduced costs possible more computers could be distributed. Samoa The Samoan government recently announced a nationwide initiative to bring internet to every person in the country (Prosser, 2004). The government has taken this step to help isolated Samoa increase communication with developed nations in hopes of boosting GDP and therefore standards of living. In the nation of 180,000 only 2% of people use the internet and trade with other nations is difficult to facilitate as New Zealand is the closest developed nation at a 4hr flight away. The Samoan government has received help from the United Nations Development Programme and is using the money to expand the IT infrastructure. Computers are being placed in schools to help children develop IT skills and also in community centers to allow people access to information and even medical help. This case is similar to the Indian cases where a single internet centre in a village can make a large difference in the lives of people. Taita Taveta, Kenya In Africa there exists the Association for Progressive Communications prize which rewards innovative IT projects in Africa. Last year’s winner was the Global Education Partnership – Wundanyib which is a non-profit computer training programme in one of the poorest regions of Kenya (Association for Progressive Computing, 2005). The project aims to develop business skills in people aged 15-24, training them using IT for setting up their own business. In 9 years nearly 1000 people have graduated and 200 of these were awarded capital to start a business. In Taita Taveta the unemployment rate is 66% so job prospects are hard to come by. By focusing on youth and entrepreneurs the region benefits greatly if any business are started. The youth are given hope and a reason to stay and develop their region. Conclusion Each case examined here shows the advantages of IT in plans for development. The cases show ways to improve lives through IT in a variety of avenues, paving the way for regional and national development. The Government of India Working Group on Information Technology for Masses’ statement is correct and bringing IT to poor areas is an important catalyst for development. Bibliography Ashurst, Mark. 2004. Brazil falls in love with Linux. Available from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3445805.stm>. Association for Progressive Computing, 2005. Winner of the 2004/5 APC Africa Hafkin Communications Prize. Available from http://www.apc.org./english/hafkin/2004/winner.shtml>. Copyleft Association for Progressive Communications APC 1999 – 2005. Campion, Mukti Jain. 2002. Connecting the villages. Available from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/2044878.stm>.  © British Broadcasting Corporation. Chatterjee, Sumeet. 2001. Indian village takes to IT to tackle corruption. Available from http://www.apnic.net/mailing-lists/s-asia-it/archive/2001/09/msg00019.html>.  © Indo-Asian News Service Computer Business Review. 2005. Cuba joins the Linux revolution. Available from http://www.cbronline.com/article_news.asp?guid=9B077C17-C2F9-4472-8B28-25F0B19E2F8A.>.  © Computer Business Review. Miles, Nick. 2005. Texting to help SA HIV patients. Available from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4437447.stm>.  © British Broadcasting Corporation. Prosser, David. 2004. Samoa plans internet for all. Available from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/3590354.stm>. >.  © British Broadcasting Corporation.

The Us Containment Policy History Essay

The Us Containment Policy History Essay Power extension has always been a subject that fascinated me. There are countless ways in which groups of individuals can maintain interests of their communities and protect them from possible threats. This phenomenon has been known to the humanity ever since the first human got off the tree and straightened up. The more sophisticated tools we started using, the more dangerous the threat has become. First armies were created, followed up by intelligence services and counter-intelligence services investigating threats both foreign and domestic. By means of diplomacy, diversion, espionage, and violence mighty rulers were trying to guarantee national security by influencing the circumstances on different levels think of Vaticans interference in French politics via Cardinal Richelieu or Charlemagnes orders to execute thousands and convert the others forcefully into Christianity during the Saxon Wars. This concept remained unchanged for centuries and reached its peak in the 20th century, materializing in three terrifying wars of which one is also known as the Cold War. For me as a person interested in power extension is the latter an episode that cannot be overemphasized. For this reason I decided to devote my PWS to it. However, originally intending to write as much as possible about the Cold War and the mutual American and Russian relations precisely, I had to delimit the subject in order to comply with the quantitative requirements laid upon me. By means of a selection I chose the aspect of the Cold War which I found by far the most interesting, namely the basic assumptions of the post-war American politicians of how to prevent the communism from spreading, also known as the containment policy (derived from contain to keep something under control), and the political and military actions of the American Administration in which these communism-countering ideas can be recognized. In my paper, being as a matter of fact a written work of reference based on numerous sources, I will try to answer the question of how successful the containment policy invented and applied by the American policymakers in the years 1945-1949 turned out to be and to what degree it prevented the communism from spreading. Despite the subject concerns a short period of five years there is much to be written. It is never easy when it comes to explaining political decisions and therefore it is highly necessary to mention the underlying grounds, of which the gradual development led to the measures in question. So will my paper begin with the description of the primary reasons resulting in the introduction of the containment policy. Having described the latter I will focus on what I personally consider as the core of my work a summary of deductions concerning the Soviet post-war point of view written down by a high-rank diplomat working in the American Embassy in Moscow. The summary to be found in chapter 3 depicts concisely the direction that was to be given to the American foreign policy in response to the Soviet spreading ambitions. Theory and planning, however, are often not sufficient to bring the expected change. Real action is also required and so it must be addressed to in my paper in order to make the story complete. Chapter 4 will outline the efforts the US policymakers made as far as the application of the containment policy on the European political arena is considered. A careful and critical reader will find amongst lines the answer on how successful the containment proved to be. The chapter also leaves an open path for those who will attempt to imagine what the current world would look like if there were no communism-countering measures or individuals ready to devote their life to protection of democratic values. I find it necessary to mention that I wanted this PWS to be a challenge and some sort of test of my language skills since I am not a native speaker of English and my level of it is far from proficiency. I didnt choose the easiest way out which was writing this paper in Dutch a language I am much more familiar with. Instead I decided to use the opportunity to learn English vocabulary and grammatical constructions which I might not have memorized if I hadnt written it in the way I had. Before you continue reading I truly want you to know that it is not my intention to lay any idealistic beliefs upon you. On the contrary, I hope my paper will help you understand the past, which is after all necessary in order to live consciously in the present and create a future not based on ignorance of not knowing what the events taking place are caused by. Enjoy your journey back in time! Chapter 2: What were the primary reasons for the mutual distrust resulting in the introduction of the containment policy? The first section of this paper will throw some light on the background of the containment policy and, as a matter of fact, The Cold War itself. A proper comprehension of this part is necessary in order to answer the main question. After the very last tanks ceased firing and the Second World War ended, many realized how terribly destructive the war had been. It had materialized in thousands of destroyed cities and generations of young men who lost their lives in combat, not to mention civilians and their continuous fear for their lives. Many of the survivors were looking brightly at the future which was expected to bring about precious peace and prosperity. Unfortunately, only a few were aware of the threat that was about to arise. The Teheran Conference To be fully able to give a constructive answer to the question in the title we have to go back in time to 1943, from November 28 up to December 1 to be precise. The Teheran Summit was the first of the conferences held between all the members of the Big Three, giving shape to those that were about to be held within the next years. Allied leaders representing the United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union pulled together in the Capital of their ally, Iran, to discuss measures that were necessary to overpower the common enemy. Apart from setting up a strategy that included synchronized operations to be undertaken from multiple directions, the Big Three agreed that they shall seek the cooperation and active participation of all nations, large and small, whose peoples in heart and mind are dedicated, as are our own peoples, to the elimination of tyranny and slavery, oppression and intolerance[1]. This encouraging press release was definitely an important sign of taking a step forward into creating some kind of an international organization that would avoid imperfections of its predecessor, The League of Nations. Preventing aggressive tendencies of any sort would be its major goal. Next to the certainty of participation of the Soviet Union, the United States and the United Kingdom in the project the question of any role that China and France should play came up. Odds enough the Chinese politicians had not been informed about the proposed understanding at that point of time as result of their disability to form a stable government. Thanks to the Churchills telegram sent to Roosevelt we can surely as shooting state that the British Head of State was more than willing to ignore his early reluctance concerning China if the American president kept pushing on their engagement. As regard to France, it is believed that Roosevelts strong antipathy towards De Gaulle might have been a factor why Frances involvement was not taken seriously at that point of negotiations. After all, the maintenance of peace by controlling, disarming, preventing from rearming in secret and, if necessary, a blockage against a country and its bombardment seemed to be accepted by each of the Heads of State. A press release saying We await the day, when all nations of the world will live peacefully, free of tyranny, according to their national needs and conscience [1] gave a deceptive impression of a complete cooperation. The question of resetting Polish boundaries, brought up by the Russian delegation (consisting of Joseph Stalin and the Soviet Defence Minister Klimentii Voroshilov), wasnt solved so easily. It was to become one of the most difficult discussion points which would dominate the Yalta Conference and caused first dents in the mutual trust between the Soviet Union and the other two allies. The Yalta Conference The second meeting of all three members of the Great Alliance was announced in January 1945. It became quite obvious that the issue of boundaries couldnt remain unresolved any longer after the Russian forces had entered on Polish soil nearly a year before on January, 2. The necessary solution was hoped to be found, as stated by Churchill, in the worst place in the world [2] Crimean Yalta. It must be mentioned that each of the participants of the summit held between February 4 and 11 was in the first place, quite logically, trying to maintain the interests of their own country. For the sake of this thesis the main bottlenecks connected to prospective mutual relations will be worked out in detail. These three completely different approaches can be summarized as follows: Winston Churchill mainly interested in the European arena and the French role in the occupation of Germany Franklin Delano Roosevelt agreement on the Far East and setting up a sort of organization of united nations Marshall Stalin the Polish question being a matter of great importance for the Soviet Union. Furthermore an interest in becoming a sphere of influence where the Soviet superiority would be accepted. The compromise about the United Nations came more easily than Roosevelt had ever expected. The deadlock on the voting procedure of the United Nations, about the right of veto to be precise, had been overcome and the number of Soviet republics, which were to participate, had been decreased from sixteen to at least two. Stalins postulates narrowed down to the issue of setting the Polish eastern frontiers at the Curzon Line a demarcation line that was proposed at the Paris Peace Conference as the eastern boundary of Poland excluding the city of Lvov with its huge percentage of Polish citizens. [3] The extremely complicated negotiations between the three Heads of State and both Polish governments (one in-exile and the second set up by the Russians) led to the adoption of the controversial Curzon Line. Stalins spreading intentions, except for the plausible argument of necessity to possess one more ice-free harbour, were perfectly described by Marshall Stalin himself to Ernest Evin, the British Foreign Secretary, saying: The United Kingdom had India and the Indian Ocean in her sphere of interest; the United States China and Japan; the USSR had nothing To guarantee the freedom of elections and establishment of democracy according to Western terms, the Big Three ratified the Joint Declaration on Liberated Europe that promised peoples liberated from the domination of Nazi Germany and the peoples of the former Axis satellite states of Europe to solve by democratic means their pressing political and economic problems'[4]. Nevertheless, the declaration above mentioned turned out to be completely meaningless as history has shown. Due to its conditional implementation and lack of binding commitments there was no legal force upon signatories to maintain the agreement. However, no violations of the Yalta agreements by Stalin were suspected at this point of time, as stated by Churchill. The impression I brought back from the Crimea, and from all my other contacts, is that Marshal Stalin and the Soviet leaders wish to live in honourable friendship and equality with the Western democracies. I feel also that their word is their bond. I know of no government which stands to its obligations, even in its own despite, more solidly than the Russian Soviet Government. I decline absolutely to embark here on a discussion about Russian good faith. It is quite evident that these matters touch the whole future of the world. [5] According to Professor Arthur Schlesinger signing the declaration by Stalin was a diplomatic blunder which became obvious just a month after the Big Three gathered in Yalta. The meetings, which were supposed to determine the best Polish democratic leader, eventually proved to be an excellent way for Soviet secret police to reach the prominent members of the former Polish resistance and make them disappear, despite the promised Soviet guarantee of immunity. It didnt take a long time before Churchills initially credulous account of the agreement transformed into the opposite conviction. By 13 March he sent a telegraph to Roosevelt with a statement that the Heads of State were in the presence of a great failure and an utter breakdown of what was settled at Yalta [6]. Twelve days later the British prime minister described the situation on the West-East border as an iron curtain, which is slowly descending. The following quotation illustrates just how dramatically the developments in the European arena were becoming. If the German people lay down their weapons, the Soviets, according to the agreement between Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin, would occupy all of East and Southeast Europe along with the greater part of the Reich. An iron curtain would fall over this enormous territory controlled by the Soviet Union, behind which nations would be slaughtered.'[7] In the meanwhile the messages exchanged between Stalin and Roosevelt, who were increasingly becoming the two bigger players in the Big Three, were full of mutual accusations of jeopardizing the vulnerable accord. The Potsdam Conference The Polish matter reached a dead end. How things developed couldnt be witnessed by Roosevelt, who died on 12 April 1945. His successor, Harry Truman, once vice-president under Roosevelt, was expected to continue the policy towards the Soviet Union initialized by Roosevelt. However, it became obvious from the beginning that the mild approach, continuously applied by his predecessor, wasnt Trumans favourite style of work. The Potsdam Conference, lasting from July 17 to August 2, aside of being a permanent confirmation of previously made agreements, became Trumans first significant opportunity to influence the US-USSR relationship, mainly because of its nuclear undertone. The US presidents decision not to fully inform Stalin about the rapid progress concerning the construction of an atomic weapon correctly delineates the prospective Trumans policy of hostility and inscrutability towards The Soviet Union. A mentioning of a new weapon of unusual destructive force [8] did not specially bot her Stalin, who was already in 1943 informed about an atomic weapon allegedly built in the West. Russian atomic project did not accelerate until Japan was bombed twice in September 1945. The order, given by Marshal Stalin to Igor Kurchatov, a leading Russian physicist, sounded more or less The balance has been destroyed. Provide the bomb (* No firm evidence of this record has remained until now but the sense of the message is kept unchanged). Chapter 3: What was the containment policy based on? In this paragraph I will briefly describe the major political events that gave shape to what is now understood as the containment policy. President Harry Truman, despite being known of his unyielding personality, lacked experience in foreign affairs and could hardly do without a number of political analysts. These happened to be influenced by the opinions of George F. Kennan (to be seen on the right hand), the prominent USSR specialist in the State Department and the charge daffaires at the American Embassy in Moscow, whose role in the process of the containment policy coming into life cant be over-emphasized. On February 22, 1946 he sent a long analysis of Soviet post-war outlook to his colleagues in the Capitol in Washington. https://blogs.princeton.edu/mudd/files/mt/images/kennan.jpg The so-called Long Telegram, of which the most relevant points are summarized below, became one of the major documents that the containment policy was based on. George F. Kennan [9] A brief characteristic of the Soviet point of view, according to the propaganda machine -The geographical and political surrounding of the USSR by capitalistic nations will eventually result in a battle for the economical leadership in the world, which will be also crucial for the fate of socialism/communism and capitalism. -Any actions, activities and happenings abroad which seem to correspond with the Soviet interests to a certain degree should be supported. In the long run the differences between capitalist countries will become too powerful to be overcome in a peaceful manner. No opportunity may be missed to turn the internal conflict into a communistic revolution. The background of the mentality The premises do not represent the point of view of an average Russian. The ordinary citizen, on the contrary to what is stated by the officials, is more than willing to contact the outside world and live peacefully. It must be kept in mind that the party is the villain The basic assumptions of the Russian propaganda machine pre-date the World War II, which makes it irrelevant and nothing more than incorrect (spoken in terms of 1940s). The premises are as much as necessary for the Russian party in order to deter Soviet citizens coming in contact with technically and economically more advanced West which might prove the fallibility of the communism/socialism. Steps that will be undertaken on the official (diplomatic) level -Increasing the outsiders perception of strength of the Soviet military arsenal and industrial development as much as social cohesion is a significant part of the national policy. On the other hand attempts will be made to conceal imperfections and weaknesses of the system. The efforts to extend Soviet political power will materialize themselves into territorial claims on the official level only after finishing unofficial preparations. Soviet participation in international organizations (as United Nations) serves only the pragmatic purposes of expanding the Soviet political influence on the international arena and reducing operational ability of others. United Nations are not seen as an instrument for a stable and peaceful world society based on interests of all nations. Even on the official level the Soviet Union will attempt to sabotage the relations between Western states and their (former) colonies in order to clear the path for the Soviet participation in policymaking. -Soviet politicians, while being abroad, will be urged to follow the strict diplomatic protocol with emphasis laid on good manners in order to increase the impression of the Soviet prestige. Suspected activities on the unofficial level, i.e. on level for which the Soviet administrations do not take responsibility I feel obliged to remark on the incredible importance of the following section. The contained statements are these that the Truman Administration (and any other following until the end of 1980s) had mostly to deal with. Actions on the unofficial level will be first of all directed to foreign organizations, movements, societies and governments that are regarded as susceptible for, what the party asserted, the Russian sense of nationalism and Marx ideas of equality. The left-wing activists, officially members of Western Labour Parties, were encouraged to work on underground lines and were intensively instructed by politicians in Moscow. A diversity of organizations and associations, such as racial, feministic or religious societies, is highly exposed to penetration. Even the subdivisions of the Orthodox Church located abroad are at risk of being penetrated. George Kennan states that organizations above mentioned will be solely used in fields of their expertise, e.g. influential orthodox activists would jeopardize any thinkable actions of Protestant politicians. Further explanations follow: Increasing industrial and social unrest and stimulation of all possible forms of disunity will result in undermining operational potential of the western states and breaking off the national confidence. In countries forced into colonial relationships outstandingly cruel actions will be undertaken to destroy relatively good relations with (former) mother countries. Simultaneously extreme left-wing parties will be preparing for not necessarily legal taking-over of political power. -Governments obviously not agreeing with the Soviet foreign policy will be kept under pressure in order to cause their eventual removal from office. Every imaginable activity will be undertaken in order to provoke the most powerful Western states against each other. Conclusions for the US Government Soviet power, not schematic in character, doesnt work by strict plans and doesnt take unnecessary hazards. It is extremely responsive to logic or force and therefore it can easily pull back and mostly does when facing a strong opposition. So, quoting Kennan, if the adversary has sufficient force and makes clear his readiness to use it, he rarely has to do so. [9] The next point the author makes has to do with the Western degree of cohesion, firmness and muster. Success of the Soviet Union, as for being the weaker force, depends to some extent on the mentioned factor. Another factor that is relatively easy to deal with is the Soviet propaganda. The destructive and generally negative character of it can be opposed by a sort of intelligent and constructive programmes. In the conclusion the author states that a calm and unprovoked recognition of the hypothetically dangerous movements must be the governments very first step. Furthermore the public education should play a bigger role. The fear of unknown can be overcome by informing the citizens about the Russian reality. After all it would result in improvement of social cohesion and make the society less vulnerable to threats from both outside and inside. Finally Kennan brings up the significance of formulating a constructive and positive picture of the sort of world the US policy makers would like to see. It is not enough to urge people to develop political processes similar to our own. Many foreign peoples, in Europe at least, are tired and frightened by experiences of past, and are less interested in abstract freedom than in security. They are seeking guidance rather than responsibilities. We should be better able than Russians to give them this. And unless we do, Russians certainly will. [10] The reaction of the Russians wasnt immediate. Nearly seven months later, on September the 27, the Soviet Ambassador to United States, Nikolai Novikov, sent a note to the highest officials of the Soviet Union that was nothing but an analysis of the Kennans Long Telegram and the US post-war foreign policy towards the Soviet Union in general. These became accessible for outsiders after the publication in Foreign Affairs magazine of the so-called X Article in July 1947, being as a matter of fact an adjusted version of the original analysis of Kennans. Novikov concluded that the American outlook is predominantly characterized by the drift towards the worlds supremacy and as well economical as military leadership. Amongst others he stated that the plans of establishing more than 480 naval bases, American mainland signalize intense intentions of hostility towards the Soviet Union. By the end of 1946 the political situation between the US and the SU reached its lowest point since the end of the Second World War. Western politicians were little by little abandoning their hope for the cooperation with the Russians and the Kennans prophecy was slowly becoming the reality. How the US officials reacted and what measures they took in order to deter foreign government representatives from embracing communism will be properly described in the following paragraph. Chapter 4: What efforts did the US government make to materialize the containment policy and with what result? The Truman Doctrine The Truman Administration received multiple signals from its British Ally about the gradually increasing difficulties of His Majestys Government to provide on-going financial help to Greece and Turkey the two states the United Kingdom had been supporting for years and which found themselves standing on the edge of a democratic collapse. In an official note dating to February 21, 1947 British informed Washington of their inability to support the mentioned states and requested for a takeover of their economical obligations. Trumans reaction came into history as the Truman Doctrine. In his speech to a joint session of Congress of March 12, he emphasized the moral obligation of the American state to provide assistance to the peoples of Greece and Turkey in order to establish a democracy and restore the authority of the government. In regard to Greece the President stated that the British aid issued in the preceding years wasnt sufficient to supply the weak and not able to operate indepe ndently army and fight communist insurgents dislocating the Greek state. Turkey, on the contrary, didnt need financial assistance so desperately at that point of time. Nevertheless due to a historic background of Greece and Turkey being stubborn rivals for decades it was necessary to split the money equally in order to avoid future claims of injustice or, even worse, anti-Western tensions. Truman concluded that the US Government was the only institution in the world able to prevent Greece and Turkey from becoming what the totalitarian states in the period of the Second World War were regimes of minorities getting their path clear by means of violence and suppression. I find it interesting to mention that the presidential Congress speech is also known as the Trumans containment speech. Clark Clifford (Trumans advisor), asked in 1972 about the nickname, said: we were concerned about preventing Soviet control of larger areas of the world than they already controlled [11]. Although the word containment wasnt even said once by Truman in his speech, the measures supposed by him concentrated on opposing the activities mentioned in the fourth point of Kennans Long Telegram namely the actions of the Soviet party conducted on unofficial level. Greek communist freedom fighters were not powered by Marxs ideals but by Stalins money and military arsenal. As result of it the most of the $338 million sent by the United States to Greece was spent on military equipment. The concept of supporting European nations economically, drafted in March 1947 and perfectly outlined by the President Truman in his Congress speech, was just a momentary restoration programme, which had to prevent Greece and Turkey from falling into the hands of communism. How this financial aid, meant only for the time being, transformed into a long-term supportive programme will be depicted in the following section. Marshall Plan The Marshall Plan, although originally not intended to be a part of the containment policy as stated in the May 23 report of the Policy Planning Staff, became a significant step forward taken by the American Administration, influence and actions of which were gradually becoming more visible on the international political arena. The Policy Planning Staff (PPS), created by George Kennan at the request of the Secretary of State George C. Marshall, was given the task of, taking a long term, strategic view of global trends and framing recommendations for the Secretary of State to advance U.S. interests and American values.'[12] In the context of the European Recovery Program, as the so-called Marshall Plan was officially known, it came down to investigating multiple possibilities of supporting financially the European communities in order to solve their war-caused economical problems and bring them to the level of self-sufficiency. To avoid sceptical publicity criticizing Americans for th eir interventionism in European affairs, aid would be exclusively launched if the formal initiative came from Europe. Besides it was required that the program would evolve on the Old Continent and that its leaders would take the fundamental responsibility for it, while the US would limit themselves to a supportive program of such an undertaking by financial means. Knowing the tensions between the US and the Soviet Union, Kennan and the other members of the PPS didnt want the European Recovery Program (ERP) to be a reason for the further isolation of East from West. Although speculating on Soviet reluctance, the inventors of the Marshall Plan included in their project the participation of the Eastern nations in an early stage. By leaving the door open the American policymakers could verify the Soviet attitude towards the plan, which eventually would give proof of their good or bad faith. Kennan and his co-workers were convinced that this offer would not remain without response, since economical co-operation of Soviet satellite countries with the US would result in weakening of Soviet control in these states. On June 5 1947 the first signals concerning the Marshall Plan were sent out to the outside world. The Harvard speech of Secretary Marshall, being an announcement of conditions and proposals above mentioned, didnt meet much of approvement at the other side of the Iron Curtain. Already after a couple of multipartite conferences the Soviet delegation under wings of Molotov turned down the negotiations. According to the diary notes of Vincent Auriol, the French president at that time, Molotov said amongst other things that the project would divide Europe [13] which testified the bad faith of the Soviet party. The September speech of Soviet deputy foreign minister Andrei Vyshinsky to the United Nations General Assembly was its final confirmation. He stated that the Marshall Plan was a firm violation of the 11 December 1946 resolution of the United Nation, which declared that distribution of economic resources by a state may not be used as an instrument of political pressure. According to Vishinsky the Russian government saw the European Recovery Project as an attempt to put European states in American sphere of influence and to intervene in their internal affairs. In Soviet opinion the plan would result in splitting Europe into two antagonistic blocs, of which the Western one, led by the United States, would develop a certain hostility towards democratically ruled Eastern European countries and the Soviet Union in particular. The splitting up of the Russians gave the American politicians an opportunity to give the aid programme a hoped-for direction. As stated by Michael J. Hogan, an adviser to the US Department of State, the Marshall Plan was about to become a protective measure to counter the Soviet threat and serve as an extension of the containment policy [14]. Â  Unlike Soviet satellite states, which dropped off under pressure of the Soviet Union, the sixteen Western neighbours gathered at a conference in Paris, which lasted from July 12 up to September 22, and was intended to give shape to the financial requests that would be presented to the Americans. Unfortunately due to disunity of the European leaders concerning the final amount that would be asked for and their unwillingness to shift part of political responsibilities to a collectively created international body, which was known as the Committee of European Economic Cooperation (CEEC), Kennan and his Policy Planning Staff did not receive an acceptable report. There are a huge number of details concerning the Marshall Plan being brought to life, which I would like to work out narrowly. Unfortunately I have to limit